本书的汉语书名很容易让人误解这本书是讲量子力学对世界的影响的,例如半导体工业、原子能、化学键等等。而本书英文版的标题更准确地传达了本书的内容,英文标题是“Helgoland: Making Sense of the Quantum Revolution”,Helgoland意译为“圣岛”,海森堡在岛上躲避让自己过敏的花粉期间想出了“矩阵力学”用以解释电子的跃迁。Making Sense of the Quantum Revolution意思是量子革命如何改变我们对世界的理解,也就是说无生命的物理世界是如何呈现为生命体的意识中那个有意义的世界的。
这其实已经触及了哲学中的本体论的问题,简单地说就是:何者为真?这个问题难就难在真不是纯粹客观的事情,而是有主观参与的事情——显然一块石头不会去争论什么是真的。对此历来有三种看法:二元论认为存在互相平行的两种现实,即精神现实和物质的现实;唯心论认为现实只存在于精神之中;天真的唯物论则认为所有的精神现象都可以归结为物质的运动。Rovelli在本书中则给出了一种新的一元论观点,但为此我们必须放弃“我”的概念,而是从过程、事件,从相对特性、从关系构成的世界的角度去思考。如果这样思考,物质和精神之间就没有巨大的断裂,它们都可以视为由复杂的互动结构生成的自然现象。

量子力学的怪异之处。1)量子力学只描述可观测量,由Heisenberg提出。2)量子力学只预测概率,即|ψ|^2,由Born提出。3)世界是离散的,即粒子性,由Planck提出。Rovelli第一次见到量子干涉的实验是在Anton Zeilinger的实验室里,让他印象深刻。实验装置如上图所示。实验结果是:如果不去隔断两条路径,光子会在右边发生干涉,全部跑到下方的探测器里面;如果用手隔断任意一条path,光子就会有一半跑到上面,一半跑到下面。在这里,如果不观测(即不用手隔断path),光就会发生干涉;如果观测了,光就是粒子性的,看到的只是一个一个的光子。Schrödinger的波动方程能描述ψ的变化,但仅仅是在观测之前,一旦观察了,ψ就会塌缩成一个确定的值。
量子态叠加及量子力学的三种解释。三种解释都是决定论的:多重世界、隐变量、物理塌缩。物理塌缩就是Copenhagen interpretation,在我看来这就是一个权宜之计,不能跟前两个解释并列,而是真正解释之前大家公认的部分,因为它根本没告诉我们波函数塌缩的时候事实上发生了什么,只是描述了计算结果。多重世界理论我不相信,原因见文末的摘抄,他预设了一个世界之外的观察者。隐变量解释是David Bohm和de Brogile提出的,也可以叫导波理论,Bohm不同意Born的看法,即只把|ψ|^2看作有物理意义的,而ψ只是一个计算工具,Bohm认为ψ本身也是真实存在的,它代表了电子的导波。电子的运动受到导波的引导,就像冲浪者受到海浪的引导一样。电子不会弥散在空间中,弥散在空间中的只是导波,用手遮挡改变了导波的分布,因此改变了电子的运动轨迹。Bohm理论的问题在于,跟经典力学的波不同,这里的导波是我们无法测量的,只存在于Schrödinger方程的计算中,这就意味着我们需要假设一个隐藏的变量,因此叫隐变量解释。此外当考虑多个粒子的导波时,Bohm的理论就会失去清晰性。
Rovelli的解释:相对性解释。1)没有互动,就没有特性(No Interaction, No Properties)。例如速度就是物体相对于观察者的速度,如果只考虑一个孤零零的物体的话就无所谓速度。2)真实是相对的,依赖于视角(Facts Are Relative)。例如在Schrödinger的猫的实验中,对于猫自己而言,要么毒气出来,要么毒气不出来,自己要么是死要么是活,没有叠加态;但对于观察者而言,猫就是处于叠加态。注意这里有毒气瓶子、猫、观察者三个物体。相对性解释眼中的世界比经典物理的世界更稀疏,它不是由充满绝对属性的物体搭建的,而是由转瞬即逝的事件搭建起来的。正如Schrödinger所说:
It is better to consider a particle not as a permanent entity but rather as an instantaneous event. Sometimes these events form chains that give the illusion of being permanent, but only in particular circumstances and only for an extremely brief period of time in each individual case.
在相对性解释中的波函数ψ是计算下一个事件相对于我们而言会出现在哪里的计算工具,它是一个相对的量:一个物体并非只有一个波函数ψ,相对于与它互动的其他不同物体,它会有不同的波函数。相对其他物体发生的其他事件并不影响相对我们而言将会在这些物体身上发生的事件的概率。这是相对性解释的中心思想。
量子纠缠不过是从外部视角观察到的那编织了现实之网的关联性而已:两个物体在一个与另一个互动的过程中显现出特性,从而获得现实意义。例如在Schrödinger的猫这个实验中,猫在和毒气瓶的互动中显现了生或死的特性,从外部视角即观察者的角度来看,就是量子纠缠。All the information that we have about the world, considered externally, is in these correlations. Since all properties are relative properties, everything in the world does not exist other than in this web of entanglement. But there is method in this madness. If I know that you have looked at the butterfly’s wings, and you tell me that they were blue, I know that if I look at them I will see them as blue: this is what the theory predicts, despite the fact that properties are relative. The fragmentation of points of view, the multiplicity of perspectives opened up by the fact that properties are only relative, is repaired, made coherent, by this consistency, which is an intrinsic part of the grammar of the theory(The tensorial structure of the Hilbert spaces of the subsystems). This consistency is the basis of the intersubjectivity that grounds the objectivity of our communal vision of the world.
量子信息区别于经典信息的两点:1)从一个物体是可获得的相关信息量是有限的。2)与同一个物体互动,我们总是可以获得新的相关信息。前者就是海森堡测不准原理:ΔxΔp≥hbar/2。后者是测量的不可交换性,这意味着不可能先尽可能准确地测量粒子的速度,然后尽可能准确地测量它的位置,如果这样做,那么第二次测量后粒子的速度就不是第一次测量的速度了。公式为xp-px=ihbar,即矩阵乘法的不可交换性。
Ernst Mach(马赫)的哲学对量子革命产生了巨大的影响。Mach是Pauli的父亲的老朋友,也是Pauli的教父,而Pauli经常和Heisenberg讨论哲学。Schrödinger也很喜欢Mach,他从儿时起就几乎读遍了Mach的所有著作。Mach对维也纳学派的逻辑实证主义也产生了很大影响,维也纳学派曾经的官方名字就是Ernst Mach Society。Mach does not see knowledge as a question of deducing or intuiting a hypothetical reality beyond sensations, but as the search for an efficient organization of our way of thinking about these sensations. The world that interests us, for Mach, is constituted by sensations. Any firm assumption about what lies “behind” those sensations is suspect as being a form of “metaphysics.” The notion of “sensation” is ambiguous in Mach. This is both his weakness and his strength: Mach takes the concept of sensation from physiology but makes it serve as a universal notion independent from the psychological sphere. He uses the term “elements” . “Elements” are not just the sensations that a human being or an animal experiences. They are any phenomena that manifest themselves in the universe. The “elements” are not independent: they are tied by relations, what Mach calls “functions,” and these are what science studies. Though imprecise, Mach’s philosophy is a real natural philosophy that replaces the mechanism of matter that moves in space with a general set of elements and functions.
波格丹诺夫(Aleksandr Bogdanov),父亲在他出生时是一名乡村教师,在他读高中时已经晋升为一座城里的更大的学校(英文版是schools)的物理教授。波格丹诺夫受够了他的高中老师,他说:“the mental closure and the malice of the professors taught me to be wary of the powers that be, and to resist all authority.” 高中毕业后波格丹诺夫进入Moscow University学习自然科学,他参加过学生组织,翻译过《资本论》,还曾去乌克兰学习医学,被捕过,被流放过。跟列宁发生唯物主义争论之后他远离了政治中心,在苏联时代他成为Moscow University的经济学教授,写过一篇科幻小说叫《红星(Red Star)》,该小说影响了Kim Stanley Robinson的小说《红火星(Red Mars)》以及Wu Ming(意大利一作家团体的共用笔名)的《Proletkult》。波格丹诺夫是医生、经济学家、哲学家、自然科学家、科幻作家、诗人、教师、政治家、控制论和组织科学的先驱、终生的革命家。The key concept of Bogdanov’s theoretical work is the notion of organization. Social life is the organization of collective work. Knowledge is the organization of experience and of concepts. It is possible to understand the whole of reality as organization, structure. The picture of the world that Bogdanov proposes is based on a spectrum of kinds of organization that become gradually more complex: from minimal elements that interact directly, through the organization of matter in the living, the biological development of individual experience organized in individuals, up to scientific knowledge, which, for Bogdanov, is collectively organized experience. Through the cybernetics of Norbert Wiener and the system theory of Ludwig von Bertalanffy, these ideas will have a little-recognized but profound influence on modern thought, on the birth of cybernetics, on the science of complex systems, down to contemporary structural realism.
在V章最后一节,Rovelli提到了哲学中把关系而非实体当作现实的基础的思想。在西方哲学中有:Heraclitus的“万物皆流”。In analytic philosophy, structural realism is based on the idea that relations come before objects. Plato在《智者篇(Sophist)》中借对话的主人公之口说“it is nothing if not action.” 此外Rovelli重点讲了龙树菩萨的《中论》,他读的是一个美国分析哲学家评注的版本,其中讲万物无自性(nothing that exists in itself independently from something else)。If nothing exists in itself, everything exists only through dependence on something else, in relation to something else. The technical term used by Nāgārjuna to describe the absence of independent existence is “emptiness” (śūnyatā): things are “empty” in the sense of having no autonomous existence. They exist thanks to, as a function of, with respect to, in the perspective of, something else. 龙树认为寻找终极的基础是没有意义的。
意义世界从何而来?套用《道德经》里的话应该是:信息生之,进化育之。Shannon also defines the notion of relative information, which is the one I used in the previous chapters: a measure of the physical correlation between two variables. Two variables have “relative information” if they can be in fewer states than the product of the number of states that each can be in. 相对信息是一个纯粹物理的概念,但我们也可以把它应用于生命体中。在生命体中,相对信息既可以是内部物质之间的关联,例如DNA分子的组成部分之间存在着相对信息;也可以是内部和外部的关系,例如细菌可以感受溶液中葡萄糖的浓度梯度,细菌的细胞膜确定了葡萄糖浓度和细菌内部生化状态之间的相关信息,这里是从物理世界迈入精神世界的第一步。而意义则更为复杂,是初步的相关信息经过大脑的加工形成的,而大脑中固化了进化带给我们的先验的东西,如语言、社会规则等。(先验这个词是我加的,相对信息+进化这个模型可以和德国古典哲学更为细致的分析对照来看,粗略地说相对信息相当于Hegel的《小逻辑》中存在论的部分,产生意义则是在本质论和概念论部分,思想的先验规定是人类的历史带给我们的,包括生物的历史和社会的历史,即Rovelli所说的进化。)
物理学不是从世界之外以第三人称来描述世界(如多重世界解释和哲学家Thomas Nagel所想的那样),而是从世界内部出发以第一人称来描述世界的。
零散的摘抄和评论:
(81页)一个物体是一个,十万个,或什么都不是。英文版是:An entity is one, no one and one hundred thousand. “什么都不是”这个翻译似乎有问题。
(91页)The joint properties of two objects exist only in relation to a third. To say that two objects are correlated means to articulate something with regard to a third object: the correlation manifests itself when the two correlated objects both interact with this third object, which can check.
The apparent incongruity raised by what seemed like communication at a distance between two entangled objects was due to neglect of this fact: the existence of a third object that interacts with both the systems is necessary to give reality to the correlations. Everything that manifests itself does so in relation to something. A correlation between two objects is a property of the two objects—like all properties, it exists only in relation to a further, third object.
Entanglement is not a dance for two partners, it is a dance for three.
评论:量子纠缠不只是两个粒子之间的舞蹈,它总是向第三者(观察者)显现。思考那个经典的量子纠缠实验,制备一对纠缠的电子,如果一个自旋↑,另一个就自旋↓,反之亦然。把这对电子分开,一个放在北京,一个放在上海。如果北京先测量了手里的电子,那电子的自旋态对北京就是确定的,用Copenhagen诠释的话来说,北京的电子发生了塌缩,我们假设北京测得电子是自旋↑。但此时上海的电子是确定态还是纠缠态?这里就显示了Copenhagen诠释和Rovelli的诠释之间的区别,Copenhagen诠释会认为两个电子同时发生了塌缩,北京和上海的电子现在都是确定态,Rovelli会说这没错,但这仅仅是相对于北京的观测者而言,相对于上海的观测者而言,两个电子的状态依然是不确定的,依然是叠加态。只有上海也测量了手里的电子——我们知道这时候测量结果一定是自旋↓,但上海在测量之前并不知道——电子对于上海的观测者而言才变为确定态。这就是Rovelli所说的两点:第一,量子纠缠是两个粒子之间的纠缠,但这个关系总是要向第三者显现才是真实的;第二,叠加态和确定态不是一个超然于观测者之上的东西,相对于不同的观测者而言,可以不同。
(97页)讲两条公理的时候翻译成“相对信息”,下面解释的时候又翻译成“相关信息”,在一页中出现这种不一致很不好。英文版是”relevant information”, 翻译成相关信息更好。后文(147页)把Shannon的relative information翻译成相对信息是对的。
(121页)Rovelli和哲学家David Albert关于形而上学的对话,很妙。One of the most acute philosophers to have examined quantum theory, David Albert, once asked me: “Carlo, how can you think that experiments in a laboratory made with little bits of metal and glass can have such significance as to put into question our most rooted metaphysical convictions about how the world works?” The question has haunted me ever since. But in the end the answer seems simple to me: “What are these ‘most rooted metaphysical convictions’ of ours, if not what we have become accustomed to believe precisely by handling stones and pieces of wood?”
(145页)Rovelli反驳了“万物精神论”,后者认为电子和质子本身应该有某种“原意识”。Rovelli说如果这么说成立,那自行车也是由微观粒子组成的,微观粒子中应该具有某种“原自行车”的存在。我不同意这个反驳,自行车和生命的区别在于,自行车功能上的最小单元就是钢铁或者塑料的零件,这些零件可以用经典力学完备地描述——我当然不是说钢铁零件中的粒子就没有量子效应,但它们的量子效应和自行车的功能无关。而生命的组成单元则复杂许多,我相信彭罗斯说的人脑的功能涉及到量子效应,但即便它不涉及到量子效应,生命和非生命之间的区别还是显而易见——你可以拆掉一辆自行车,再把它拼好,但无法对一个生命这么做,当你拆开它,再拼好时,生命就消失了。这意味着生命的不同层级之间——即从原子到器官到生命体之间——不是依靠机械组合而连接的,而是有某种更连贯、更能动的连接方式。在这个意义上,我们可以说微观粒子有某种“原意识”,因为它的能动性在意识中得到保存,而组成自行车的原子的能动性则被阻隔在零件这个层级以下。
(160页)量子力学多重世界解释的困境:这一阐释描述的只是一个在世界外部的观测者与世界互动时将会发生的事情,但不存在世界外部的观测者,因此它所描述的不是世界的事实。
(163页)The cosmos is change, life is discourse. by Democritus